भारतीय संविधान भाग 2: नागरिकता और सामाजिक न्याय की दिशा भारत का संविधान, दुनिया के सबसे विस्तृत और समावेशी संविधानों में से एक है, जो न केवल राज्य की संरचना और प्रशासन के ढांचे को निर्धारित करता है, बल्कि नागरिकों के अधिकारों और कर्तव्यों को भी स्पष्ट रूप से परिभाषित करता है। भारतीय संविधान का भाग 2 भारतीय नागरिकता से संबंधित है, जो एक लोकतांत्रिक राष्ट्र के मूलभूत ताने-बाने को आकार देने में महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाता है। नागरिकता की परिभाषा और महत्व संविधान का भाग 2 भारतीय नागरिकता को परिभाषित करता है, यह स्पष्ट करता है कि एक व्यक्ति को भारतीय नागरिकता कब और कैसे प्राप्त होती है, और किन परिस्थितियों में यह समाप्त हो सकती है। नागरिकता, किसी भी देश में व्यक्ति और राज्य के बीच एक संप्रभु संबंध को स्थापित करती है। यह एक व्यक्ति को अपने अधिकारों का दावा करने का अधिकार देती है और साथ ही राज्य के प्रति उसकी जिम्मेदारियों को भी स्पष्ट करती है। भारतीय संविधान में नागरिकता की प्राप्ति के विभिन्न आधार हैं, जैसे जन्म, वंश, और पंजीकरण के माध्यम से। यह सुनिश्चित करता है कि कोई भी व्यक्ति, जो भारत...
Lesson 1.1 : End of Bipolarity
↪The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) came into existence in 1922 following the Bolshevik/Communist Revolution in Russia in 1917 under Lenin’s leadership.
↪This revolution occurred in opposition to the capitalist system and was inspired by socialist ideals and the need for an egalitarian society.
↪It was the largest attempt to abolish private property and establish equality in society.
Features of the Soviet System
↪The Communist Party was the central pillar of the Soviet political system, leaving no space for any other political party or opposition.
↪It had a planned economy, meaning the entire economy was under government control.
↪It was the leader of the "Second World" countries.
↪Apart from the United States, the Soviet Union had the most advanced economy in the world.
↪It had vast energy resources (natural gas, mineral oil) and mineral reserves (iron, steel), along with advanced machinery production.
↪Transportation and communication systems were highly developed.
↪The domestic consumer industry was advanced, producing everything from needles to airplanes. However, the quality of products was lower than that of Western countries.
↪Citizens were guaranteed a minimum standard of living.
↪The government provided essential services such as healthcare, education, and public welfare at subsidized rates.
↪There was no unemployment.
↪The means of production were owned by the state.
- Shortcomings of the Soviet System
↪Bureaucratic control kept tightening over time.
↪The system became increasingly authoritarian, making life difficult for the people as their voices went unheard.
↪Citizens had no freedom of speech and were afraid to speak against the government. They often expressed their views through jokes and cartoons.
↪Most Soviet institutions needed reform.
↪A one-party dictatorship prevailed, and the Communist Party was not accountable to the people.
↪The Soviet Union was composed of 15 republics, but Russia dominated in all matters, making the other 14 republics feel neglected and oppressed.
↪A significant portion of resources was spent on military equipment due to the arms race, which had severe economic consequences.
↪It lagged behind Western countries in technology, and the quality of manufactured goods declined.
↪It failed to meet the economic aspirations of its people.
↪The intervention in Afghanistan in 1979 further weakened its economic position.
↪Consumer goods became scarce, and food had to be imported.
↪By the late 1970s, the system was faltering and eventually stagnated.
- Gorbachev's Reforms
↪The Soviet Union spent most of its resources on nuclear weapons and military equipment.
↪A significant part of its resources was also allocated to developing its Eastern European satellite states to keep them under Soviet control. This put immense economic pressure on the USSR, which its system could not handle.
↪Additionally, when Soviet citizens became aware that their standard of living was much lower than that of European countries, it was a psychological shock to them.
↪The administrative and political system of the Soviet Union had completely stagnated. The Communist Party had ruled since 1917, but it was not accountable to the people.
↪Corruption was rampant in the administration, and the government lacked the capacity to implement reforms.
↪Despite its vast size, power was centralized.
↪Due to these factors, the general public became dissatisfied and disconnected from the government.
↪Worse still, Communist Party officials enjoyed more privileges than ordinary citizens, causing disillusionment among the people and eroding government support.
Glasnost and Perestroika
↪In March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union.
↪Gorbachev promised to solve these problems and introduced his new vision.
↪He restored people's freedoms and restructured the economy.
↪Glasnost means "policy of openness."
↪Perestroika means "economic restructuring."
↪Thus, the system that had suppressed people like mute and deaf animals since Lenin’s time was dismantled.
↪The economy was opened to private enterprise, which Gorbachev saw as the best way to save the collapsing socialist state.
↪However, as soon as the reforms were implemented, people gained freedom of expression and began openly criticizing the government’s flawed policies.
↪A surge of expectations and aspirations emerged, ultimately sweeping away the Soviet socialist system.
↪Feelings of nationalism and sovereignty arose in the Soviet republics, paving the way for the USSR's disintegration.
- Causes of the Dissolution of the Soviet Union
↪The internal weaknesses of the Soviet political and economic institutions failed to meet people's aspirations, which was the primary cause of its collapse.
↪The economy remained stagnant for years, leading to a shortage of consumer goods.
↪A large part of the Soviet population viewed their government with suspicion and openly started questioning it.
↪Most resources were spent on nuclear weapons and military equipment.
↪Additional resources were allocated to developing Eastern European satellite states to maintain Soviet control, placing a severe economic burden on the USSR.
↪As Soviet citizens became more aware of Western progress, they realized they had been misled about their system’s superiority. This realization was a psychological shock.
↪The Communist Party’s authoritarian rule made it unaccountable to the people.
↪Corruption was rampant, administration was paralyzed, and the system lost its ability to reform.
↪Party officials enjoyed special privileges, creating a disconnect between them and the people.
↪Despite its vast size, power was centralized, and bureaucracy dominated governance.
↪Gorbachev’s reforms had unintended consequences. He faced opposition both within the party and from the public—reforms were too slow for the masses and too radical for party elites.
↪The rise of nationalist and separatist movements in Soviet republics became the most immediate cause of the USSR's collapse.
- Dissolution of the Soviet Union
↪The first independence movement began in Lithuania in 1988 and soon spread to Estonia and Latvia.
↪Lithuania was the first to declare independence in 1990.
↪In 1991, under the leadership of newly elected Russian President Boris Yeltsin, Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus declared the end of the Soviet Union.
↪Twelve former Soviet republics formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS): Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan.
↪Russia became the successor state to the Soviet Union, inheriting:
↪Permanent membership in the UN Security Council.
↪Nuclear power status
↪Responsibility for international treaties signed by the USSR
↪Boris Yeltsin became Russia’s first President. However, he was criticized for the hardships Russians faced during the transition from communism to capitalism.
- Consequences of the Soviet Union’s Dissolution
↪The global political landscape changed dramatically. The Soviet Union ceased to be a superpower.
↪The world became unipolar, with the United States as the sole superpower.
↪The Cold War and arms race ended.
↪Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe, giving way to multiparty democratic systems.
↪The Third World countries suffered as they had received economic, military, and technological aid from the USSR. They now faced neo-colonialism threats.
↪Market economies gained momentum worldwide.
↪The collapse of the USSR demonstrated that long-term repression and denial of civil liberties could not sustain a government, reinforcing democracy.
↪Several new nations emerged on the global stage.
- India-Soviet Relations
↪Economic Cooperation: The USSR helped establish steel plants in Bhilai, Bokaro, and Visakhapatnam, as well as BHEL. Trade was conducted in Indian rupees.
↪Political Cooperation: The USSR consistently supported India on the Kashmir issue and aided India during the 1971 war with Pakistan.
↪Defense Cooperation: India received Soviet military equipment and collaborated on arms production.
↪Space Cooperation: The USSR assisted India in space programs, including cryogenic engine development.
↪Cultural Ties: Bollywood movies were extremely popular in the Soviet Union.
↪India's Relations with Post-Soviet States
↪India maintains strong relations with Russia, advocating for a multipolar world.
↪Both countries support coexistence, collective security, regional sovereignty, independent foreign policies, peaceful conflict resolution, and strengthening the UN.
↪In 2001, India and Russia signed 80 bilateral agreements.
↪India is Russia’s second-largest arms buyer.
↪Russia supplies oil and assists in nuclear and space technology.
↪India is working to increase energy imports from Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan.
↪At the 2016 BRICS Summit in Goa, India and Russia strengthened ties in defense, nuclear energy, and space cooperation.
- Important Questions and Answers
Chapter 1.1 : The End of Bipolarity
One-Mark Questions:
1. What is meant by bipolarity?
↪The existence of two centers (poles) of power in the world, namely the United States and the Soviet Union.
2. The Berlin Wall was a symbol of __________.
↪The Cold War.
3. When was the Soviet Socialist Republic established?
↪In 1922.
4. What is meant by the Second World?
↪The countries of the socialist bloc in Eastern Europe.
5. Write the full form of CIS.
↪Commonwealth of Independent States.
6. When was the Berlin Wall demolished?
↪November 9, 1989.
7. Who was declared the successor of the USSR?
↪Russia.
8. Which leader initiated reforms in the Soviet Union?
↪Mikhail Gorbachev.
9. Into which two parts did Czechoslovakia split?
↪Czech Republic and Slovakia.
10. Which military alliance was formed by the Soviet Union in opposition to NATO?
↪The Warsaw Pact, 1955.
11. Name the first republics to separate from the Soviet Union.
↪Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia.
12. Name two republics of Russia where separatist movements took place.
↪Chechnya and Dagestan.
13. The Soviet political system was based on the ideology of __________.
↪Socialism.
14. How many republics made up the Soviet Union?
↪15.
15. Considering the current political scenario, how many poles of power exist in the world?
↪Multipolar.
16. When did the USSR come into existence?
↪After the 1917 Socialist Revolution, in 1922.
17. Which republics first declared the dissolution of the Soviet Union?
↪Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus, under the leadership of Boris Yeltsin.
18. Name two nations formed after the disintegration of Yugoslavia in 1991.
↪Bosnia and Herzegovina.
19. Mention one feature of the Soviet system that was in favor of public welfare.
↪A minimum standard of living was guaranteed for all citizens.
20. Which military pact was signed by the Soviet Union in response to NATO?
↪ Warsaw Pact.
21. Who was the General Secretary of the Communist Party at the time of the Soviet Union's disintegration?
↪ Mikhail Gorbachev.
22. How many republics were part of the Soviet Union?
↪15.
Two-Mark Questions:
1. What is meant by "Shock Therapy"?
↪A model for transitioning from communism to capitalism through drastic economic reforms.
2. Name any two Central Asian countries that separated from the Soviet Union.
↪Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
3. For how many years did the civil war in Tajikistan last, and when did it end?
↪10 years; ended in 2001.
4. Arrange the following events in chronological order: Afghan Crisis, Russian Revolution, Fall of the Berlin Wall, Disintegration of the Soviet Union.
↪Russian Revolution
↪Afghan Crisis
↪ Fall of the Berlin Wall
↪ Disintegration of the Soviet Union.
5. Match the following:
↪Shock Therapy → Economic Model
↪Russia → Successor of the Soviet Union
↪Boris Yeltsin → President of Russia
↪Warsaw Pact → Military Alliance
6. Why is "Shock Therapy" referred to as the biggest garage sale in history?
↪Because under this model, 90% of Russia’s industries were sold to private hands at throwaway prices.
7. State two consequences of Shock Therapy.
↪(i) Depreciation of the Russian currency, Ruble.
↪(ii) The economy of the entire region collapsed.
Three/Four-Mark Questions:
1. Mention four differences between the Soviet and American economies.
- Soviet Economy:
↪Fully state-controlled.
↪Planned economy.
↪No private capital.
↪Inspired by socialist ideals.
- American Economy:
↪Minimal state intervention.
↪Based on free competition.
↪Private capital is significant.
↪Driven by the principle of maximum profit.
2. Why did the Soviet Union collapse despite Gorbachev’s reforms?
↪As soon as Gorbachev loosened the administrative structure, people's expectations surged, making control difficult.
↪His reforms were seen as too slow.
↪Once people tasted freedom, they refused to return to communism.
3. What were the consequences of the Soviet Union’s disintegration for countries like India?
↪Increased American intervention in the politics of developing countries.
↪A setback for communist ideology.
↪US dominance over key global institutions (IMF, World Bank).
↪Unrestricted entry of multinational corporations into India and other developing countries.
4. Was Shock Therapy the best way to transition from communism to capitalism? Justify your answer.
↪No, reforms should have been gradual instead of sudden economic shocks.
5. Why did Gorbachev want to reform the Soviet system?
↪To expand information and technology.
↪To modernize the Soviet economy.
↪To make the administrative system more accountable.
↪To make the Soviet Union more democratic.
↪To normalize relations with the West.
Four-Marks Questions:
1. The Russian currency saw a dramatic decline in value, leading to inflation and loss of savings. The collective farming system had ended, and food security was no longer assured.
(i) What is the name of the Russian currency?
↪Ruble.
(ii) What is collective farming?
↪A system where land was owned by the state, and farming was done collectively under state supervision.
(iii) Which therapy led to these results? Explain its meaning.
↪Shock Therapy: A sudden transition from communism to capitalism.
2. Should India change its foreign policy post-Soviet disintegration and focus more on the US instead of Russia?
↪International relations are driven by national interests rather than permanent friendships or rivalries.
↪India has adapted to global changes while maintaining good relations with both Russia and the US.
3. Explain six reasons why the Soviet Union emerged as a world power after World War II.
↪Controlled the socialist bloc in Eastern Europe.
↪Led the Warsaw Pact military alliance.
↪Had a highly developed economy.
↪Advanced transportation and energy resources.
↪Self-reliant industrial sector.
↪Ensured a minimum standard of living for all citizens.
Transition from a Bipolar to a Unipolar World
Introduction:
After World War II, two superpowers emerged: the US and the Soviet Union. This led to the Cold War and bloc politics. The US-led NATO, while the Soviet Union led the Warsaw Pact. This resulted in a bipolar world. However, the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of bipolarity, making the US the sole superpower.
Characteristics of the Soviet System:
↪Socialist economy, planned development, and collective farming.
↪One-party rule under the Communist Party.
↪Emphasis on social welfare and minimum living standards.
↪Strong military and industrial base.
Causes of Soviet Disintegration:
↪Bureaucratic control and lack of democracy.
↪Economic stagnation and technological lag.
↪Rising nationalism among Soviet republics.
↪The Afghanistan invasion weakened the economy.
↪Gorbachev’s policies of Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring) backfired.
Conclusion:
With the fall of the USSR, the world moved towards a unipolar order dominated by the US, later shifting towards multipolarity with rising global powers like China, India, and the European Union.
Analyzing the Soviet System: Its Strengths, Weaknesses, and Causes of Collapse
↪After World War II, two superpowers emerged—the United States and the Soviet Union. This led to the Cold War and the formation of military alliances. The U.S. led NATO, SEATO, and CENTO, while the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact. This created a bipolar world order, where power was concentrated around these two centers. However, with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the bipolar world ended, and a unipolar world emerged. Let us examine the features of the Soviet system and the reasons for its disintegration.
The Soviet System: Positive Features
The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) came into existence after the 1917 socialist revolution in Russia. Some of its key positive features were:
↪1. Opposition to Capitalist Exploitation
The Soviet system opposed capitalist exploitation, which allowed the wealthy to dominate and oppress the working class.
↪2. Commitment to Socialist Ideals
Inspired by socialist ideals, it aimed to establish an egalitarian society.
↪3. Abolition of Private Property
It was one of the most significant efforts in history to eliminate private ownership and build a society based on equality. The state and the Communist Party held primary authority.
↪4. One-Party Political System
The Communist Party was the sole political entity, ensuring quick decision-making without opposition.
↪5. Planned Economy
The state controlled all sectors of the economy through five-year plans.
↪6. Leader of the Second World
After World War II, Eastern European nations came under Soviet influence and followed the Soviet socialist model. This bloc was known as the "Second World," with the USSR as its leader.
↪7. Developed Economy
Apart from the U.S., the Soviet Union had the world's most advanced economy.
↪8. Advanced Communication Infrastructure
The USSR had an extensive and well-developed transportation network, connecting even remote areas.
↪9. Strong Consumer Industry
The Soviet Union produced everything from pins to cars, though the quality lagged behind Western products.
↪10. Guaranteed Basic Living Standards
The government provided essential services like healthcare, education, childcare, and welfare at subsidized rates. Unemployment was virtually nonexistent.
↪11. State Ownership of Production Means
Land and industries were state-controlled, eliminating private ownership.
Negative Aspects of the Soviet System Leading to Its Collapse
↪1. Bureaucratic Dominance
The system became increasingly bureaucratic, leading to inefficiency and difficulties for citizens.
↪2. Lack of Democratic Values
Freedom of speech and democratic participation were absent. Dissent was often expressed through jokes and cartoons.
↪3. Failed Reform Attempts
Efforts to reform institutions failed, leaving people dissatisfied, especially with Gorbachev's slow reforms.
↪4. Authoritarian Communist Rule
The Communist Party had unchecked control over all institutions and was not accountable to the people.
↪5. Disregard for Public Opinion
The USSR was a federation of 15 republics, but central authority ignored the aspirations of non-Russian populations.
↪6. Russian Dominance
Although officially a union of 15 republics, Russia dominated political and economic decisions. Other regions felt neglected and oppressed.
↪7. Arms Race with the U.S.
The costly military competition with the U.S. drained Soviet resources, leaving infrastructure and technology underdeveloped.
↪8. Failure to Meet Citizens' Aspirations
The Soviet state could not fulfill its people's political and economic desires, leading to widespread discontent.
↪9. Intervention in Afghanistan
The 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan further weakened the system.
↪10. Shortage of Consumer Goods
Despite rising wages, productivity and technological progress lagged behind Western nations, causing shortages of essential goods. Food imports increased significantly by the late 1970s.
Gorbachev’s Reforms
↪The Soviet Union spent much of its resources on nuclear weapons, military equipment, and subsidizing Eastern European satellite states to maintain control. This put immense economic pressure on the USSR, which its system failed to manage.
↪As Soviet citizens became aware that their living standards were far lower than in Western Europe, dissatisfaction grew. The administrative and political system had become stagnant. Since 1917, the Communist Party had ruled without accountability, and corruption was rampant. Despite the USSR’s vast size, power was highly centralized. People were frustrated with the privileges enjoyed by party officials, leading to widespread disillusionment with the government.
What Were Glasnost and Perestroika?
↪In March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union and promised to address these issues. He introduced Glasnost (Openness) and Perestroika (Economic Restructuring).
↪Glasnost allowed greater freedom of speech and transparency in governance.
↪Perestroika introduced elements of private enterprise into the economy.
↪Gorbachev believed these reforms were necessary to save the weakening socialist state. However, as soon as they were implemented, people began openly criticizing the government's past failures. This unleashed a wave of aspirations for freedom and sovereignty among the Soviet republics, ultimately leading to the dissolution of the USSR.
Lesson 1.2 : Alternative Center of Power
- European Union
Background and Formation
↪During World War II, European countries suffered massive devastation. Therefore, there was a need for reconstruction and development in Europe. The United States introduced the Marshall Plan to provide economic assistance for the reconstruction and development of European countries.
↪In 1948, under the Marshall Plan, the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) was established to provide economic assistance to Western European countries. This was the first platform where Western European countries began helping each other in trade and economic matters.
↪In 1949, the formation of the Council of Europe became the next step in political cooperation.
↪In April 1951, six Western European countries—Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, West Germany, and Italy (BFNL-JI)—formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) under the Paris Treaty (France).
↪These same countries later formed the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community under the Treaty of Rome (Italy) in March 1957.
↪After the establishment of the European Parliament in 1979 (Brussels, Belgium), the European Economic Community took on a political dimension.
↪Under the Schengen Agreement in June 1985 (Schengen, Luxembourg), border controls between European countries were abolished. This is why the European Union is also called the Schengen Area.
↪After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the process of European integration gained momentum.
↪In February 1992, under the Maastricht Treaty (Netherlands), the European Economic Community was transformed into the European Union (EU).
↪From January 1, 2002, the common currency, the Euro, was introduced. Initially adopted by 12 countries, today, 19 countries are part of the Eurozone.
- Objectives of the European Union
↪A common foreign and security policy.
↪Cooperation on internal affairs and justice.
↪Adoption of a common currency.
↪Visa-free movement.
- Characteristics of the European Union
The EU has evolved from an economic cooperation organization into a political entity.
↪It functions like a large nation-state.
↪It has its own flag, anthem, founding day, and currency.
↪It has developed a shared foreign and security policy to a significant extent.
↪The EU flag consists of 12 golden stars in a circle, symbolizing unity and reconciliation. The number 12 represents completeness and unity.
- Factors That Make the European Union Powerful
↪In 2005, it was the world's largest economy, surpassing the United States in GDP.
↪Its currency, the Euro, poses a threat to the dominance of the US dollar.
↪It accounts for three times the share of global trade compared to the United States, allowing it to negotiate firmly in trade disputes with the US and China.
↪The EU's economic influence extends across Europe, Asia, and Africa.
↪It plays a significant role within international organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO).
↪France, an EU member, holds a permanent seat in the UN Security Council, giving the EU influence over global policies, including those of the US.
↪Militarily, the EU has the second-largest armed forces in the world, with a defense budget second only to the United States.
↪France, an EU member, is a nuclear power.
↪In space science and communications technology, the EU ranks second globally.
↪As a supranational organization, the EU has the power to intervene in economic, political, and social matters.
- Why Was the EU Compared to the Titanic in a Cartoon?
In 2003, the EU attempted to draft a common constitution, but the effort failed. This failure was depicted in a cartoon by Ares, Kegels, showing the EU as the Titanic. Just as the Titanic, despite being a grand ship, sank before reaching its destination, the EU's attempt to create a unified constitution also failed.
- What If There Were a Single European Union Football Team?
If the European Union had a single football team, player selection would be highly competitive, with only the best performers making the team.
- Four Major Differences Among EU Countries
1. Foreign and defense policy disagreements exist among EU countries.
2. During the Iraq War, the UK supported the US, while France and Germany opposed it.
3. Differences over adopting the Euro as the common currency exist.
4. Denmark and Sweden resisted adopting the Maastricht Treaty and the Euro.
- How Can the Euro Challenge the US Dollar's Dominance?
↪The Euro poses a threat to the dominance of the US dollar in the following ways:
↪The use of the Euro is increasing daily, challenging the supremacy of the dollar.
↪The EU’s trade influence is three times larger than the US, making it a major player in global finance.
↪The EU is politically, diplomatically, and militarily strong, making it resistant to US pressure.
↪The EU’s economic power influences neighboring regions, including Asia and Africa.
↪The EU economy is one of the world’s largest, with GDP second only to the United States.
- Structure of the European Union
1. European Commission:
Initiates, implements, and oversees EU policies and legislation.
2. European Council:
Organizes summits of national leaders.
Sets the EU’s political agenda.
Resolves disputes among member states.
3. Council of Ministers:
Holds meetings of foreign ministers from member states.
Finalizes EU legislation along with the European Parliament.
Shares legislative powers with the Parliament.
4. European Parliament:
Composed of directly elected representatives from EU citizens.
5. European Court of Justice:
Resolves disputes among EU member states.
- Four Objectives of the European Union.
1. Common foreign and defense policy
2. A unified European citizenship
3. Economic and social integration among European nations
4. Common currency adoption and peaceful conflict resolution.
What Makes the EU an Effective Regional Organization?
↪Common currency, founding day, anthem, and flag
↪Strong economic, political, diplomatic, and military influence
↪Highly powerful economic presence
- Two Reasons for the Formation of the European Economic Community (EEC)
1. Reconstruction and economic development
2. To counter US dominance and restore Europe's global standing
- Two Objectives of the European Economic Community
1. To promote economic growth
2. To achieve self-reliance and reduce dependence on the US.
- ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian Nations
↪In August 1967, five countries of the region—FISTM (Philippines, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia)—signed the Bangkok (Thailand) Declaration and established ASEAN.
↪Later, Brunei, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, and Cambodia joined, bringing the total membership to 10 countries.
- Why did Southeast Asian nations take the initiative to establish ASEAN?
The Southeast Asian nations initiated the formation of ASEAN for the following reasons:
↪Before and during World War II, these nations suffered from European and Japanese colonialism, paying a heavy political and economic price.
↪After the war, they faced challenges such as nation-building, economic underdevelopment, and poverty.
↪During the Cold War, they were under pressure to align with one of the superpowers.
↪These countries were not in a position to handle internal conflicts independently.
↪The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) failed to foster cooperation and unity among third-world countries.
- Objectives of ASEAN
1. To accelerate the economic development of member countries.
2. To achieve social and cultural development.
3. To promote regional peace and stability by adhering to the rule of law and the principles of the United Nations.
4. To encourage economic, social, cultural, scientific, and administrative cooperation among member nations.
5. To promote cooperation in agriculture, trade, and industry.
6. To establish a free trade area within ASEAN
- ASEAN Flag
The ASEAN flag features ten stalks of rice, symbolizing the 10 member nations, bound together in unity, friendship, and brotherhood. The circle in the flag represents ASEAN's unity.
- ASEAN Way
ASEAN has gained recognition for its informal, non-confrontational, and cooperative approach to resolving disputes, which is now referred to as the "ASEAN Way." One of the core principles of ASEAN is respect for national sovereignty in all its activities.
- Three Pillars of ASEAN and Their Objectives
1. ASEAN Security Community
It is based on the agreement that regional disputes will not escalate into military conflicts.
2. ASEAN Economic Community
Its goal is to establish a common market and production base among ASEAN nations, aiding their economic and social development.
3. ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community
Its aim is to enhance social and cultural relations among ASEAN countries instead of engaging in conflicts.
- ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) - 1994
In 1994, the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was established to enhance coordination in security and foreign policies among nations.
- ASEAN Vision Document 2020
1. It emphasizes ASEAN's proactive role in the international community.
2. It promotes dialogue over conflict resolution. ASEAN successfully mediated the Cambodian conflict and managed the East Timor crisis using this strategy.
3. Since 1999, ASEAN has regularly held annual meetings to discuss East Asian cooperation.
- Structure of ASEAN
1. ASEAN Summit
2. Secretariat – Jakarta, Indonesia.
- Relevance and Importance of ASEAN
1. ASEAN's economic strength, especially in trade and investment with rapidly growing Asian economies like India and China, has made it more attractive.
2. ASEAN’s true power lies in continuous dialogue and consultations between member states, associate members, and other non-regional organizations.
3. It is Asia’s only regional organization that provides a political platform for discussions on political and security issues between Asian countries and global powers.
4. ASEAN has also focused on creating a free trade zone for investment, labor, and services.
5. ASEAN's total economy is smaller than the U.S., the European Union, and Japan, but it is growing at the fastest rate. As a result, its influence is rapidly increasing both within and outside the region.
6. ASEAN’s growing significance is evident from the fact that global powers like the U.S. and China are keenly interested in it.
- India-ASEAN Relations
↪Initially, India’s foreign policy did not focus much on ASEAN. However, in recent years, India has actively engaged with ASEAN.
↪Since 1991, India adopted the "Look East Policy", forming free trade agreements with Malaysia, Singapore, and Thailand.
↪In 2010, the ASEAN-India Free Trade Agreement came into effect.
↪Recently, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi visited ASEAN nations and signed agreements to enhance cooperation in various fields. He introduced the "Act East Policy" to replace the "Look East Policy."
↪In 2018, on India’s Republic Day, ASEAN leaders were invited as chief guests, signifying deepening ties.
↪Currently, India-ASEAN trade stands at $100 billion, with a goal to increase it to $300 billion by 2025
- Why is ASEAN Successful While SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) is Not?
↪Is it because ASEAN has no dominant country?
↪The main reason for ASEAN’s success is its informal, non-confrontational, and cooperative approach, which has helped in establishing a free trade zone for investment, labor, and services. It has also created a common market and a shared production base, fostering economic and social development in the region.
↪On the other hand, SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) failed due to persistent conflicts among its member states. Unlike ASEAN, SAARC did not resolve its internal disputes through dialogue.
↪As a result: SAARC could not establish a common market.
↪It failed to create a free trade zone for investment, labor, and services.
↪Thus, ASEAN's success lies in regional cooperation, while SAARC's failure is due to internal conflicts and lack of unity.
China
- Early Characteristics of the Chinese Economy
↪The Communist Revolution led by Mao Zedong resulted in the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949.
↪Initially, China adopted the Soviet economic model.
↪In the early years, Communist China isolated itself from the capitalist world and had to rely solely on its own resources. It received some assistance from the Soviet Union for a short period.
↪The development model focused on extracting capital from agriculture to establish large industries under government control.
↪Due to a lack of foreign exchange, China could not import technology and goods. As a result, it started gradually producing imported goods domestically.
↪The Chinese government aimed to provide employment and social welfare benefits to as many citizens as possible.
↪In terms of education and healthcare, China was even ahead of developed nations.
↪The economic growth rate was between 5-6%, but this was insufficient to support the massive population, which was growing at 2-3% per year.
↪The agricultural surplus was not enough to meet the requirements of industrial expansion.
↪Similar to the state-controlled Soviet system, China faced issues such as slow industrial production and low per capita income.
- Economic Reforms in China
↪During the 1970s, the Chinese leadership made several major policy decisions:
↪1972: China established diplomatic and economic ties with the United States, ending its political and economic isolation.
↪1973: Premier Zhou Enlai proposed the "Four Modernizations" in agriculture, industry, military, and science & technology.
↪1978: Deng Xiaoping introduced economic reforms and the "Open Door Policy", encouraging foreign investment and technology to achieve higher productivity. This marked a shift towards a market-oriented economy (Liberalization, Privatization, and Globalization – LPG).
↪Unlike the Soviet Union, which implemented shock therapy, China gradually opened its economy in phases.
↪1982: Privatization of agriculture began.
↪1998: Industries were privatized.
↪Trade restrictions were only lifted within Special Economic Zones (SEZs).
↪2001: China became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO).
- How Did China's Economy Improve Due to New Economic Policies?
1. Privatization of agriculture led to a significant increase in agricultural output and rural income.
2. Private savings in the rural economy increased, leading to the rapid growth of rural industries.
3. Both agriculture and industry saw economic expansion.
4. The introduction of new trade laws and the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) led to a surge in foreign trade.
5. China became the most attractive destination for Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in the world.
6. China accumulated vast foreign exchange reserves and began investing in other countries.
- Despite Economic Growth, Why Didn't Every Chinese Citizen Benefit?
↪Although China experienced economic progress, not all Chinese citizens benefited due to:
1. Increase in unemployment – Around 100 million people were struggling to find jobs.
2. Rise in corruption.
3. Fewer employment opportunities for women, preventing improvement in their social status.
4. Growing regional inequality – Disparities increased between urban and rural areas, as well as between coastal and inland regions.
5. Environmental degradation due to industrial expansion.
India-China Relations from Independence to 1962.
1. After the Communist Revolution of 1949, India became the first non-communist country to recognize the People’s Republic of China.
2. In 1954, Indian Prime Minister Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai signed the Panchsheel Agreement, based on five principles of peaceful coexistence. This led to the popular slogan "Hindi-Chini Bhai-Bhai" (Indians and Chinese are brothers).
3. In 1950, China occupied Tibet. Initially, India did not oppose this, but later realized its mistake.
4. In 1959, China began suppressing Tibetans, leading to the Dalai Lama and thousands of Tibetan refugees fleeing to India, which angered China.
5. In 1962, China attacked India, capturing parts of Arunachal Pradesh and Ladakh, leading to strained relations between the two nations
Alternative Centers of Power
One-mark Questions
↪1. Which organization was established in 1948 under the Marshall Plan?
European Economic Cooperation Organization
↪2. Which leader in China adopted the ‘Open Door’ policy and when?
Deng Xiaoping, 1978
↪3. During the tenure of which Chinese Prime Minister were four modernization proposals introduced?
Zhou Enlai
↪4. Write the full form of ASEAN.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
↪5. When and by which treaty was the European Union formed?
1992, Maastricht Treaty
↪6. With which two ASEAN countries has India signed a free trade agreement?
Singapore and Thailand
↪7. The ASEAN ‘ASEAN Way’ helped resolve conflicts between which two countries.
Cambodia and East Timor
↪8. Which countries opposed adopting the ‘Euro’ currency?
Sweden and Denmark
↪9. When and by which treaty was border control abolished among European Community countries?
1985, Schengen Treaty.
↪10. What is the currency of the European Union?
Euro
↪11. When did China attack In India
October 1962
↪12. After the Communist Revolution under Mao, from which country was China’s economic model imported?
Soviet Union
↪13. Which of the following statements is false?
i) ASEAN was founded by five countries.
ii) Currently, it has 10 member states.
iii) Respect for national sovereignty is important in ASEAN’s functioning.
iv) The ASEAN Regional Forum was established in 1992.
Answer: iv) The ASEAN Regional Forum was established in 1992.
↪14. When was privatization in Chinese agriculture implemented?
1982.
↪15. Write the full form of China's ambitious OBOR initiative.
One Belt One Road.
↪16. Name two founding member countries of ASEAN.
Malaysia and Singapore
Two-mark Questions
1. What is meant by a regional organization?
Organizations formed at the regional level to promote mutual cooperation, such as SAARC, ASEAN, and the European Union.
2. What is meant by alternative centers of power?
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the era of American dominance began worldwide. However, some countries and regional organizations emerged as alternative centers of power. These countries or organizations are somewhat capable of limiting U.S. dominance as they are growing politically and economically strong.
3. What was the Marshall Plan?
A plan presented by the U.S. to provide economic aid for the reconstruction and development of Western European countries. Under this plan, the European Economic Cooperation Organization was established in 1948.
4. Name any two founding countries of ASEAN.
Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand.
5. What were two key policy decisions taken by China in the 1970s?
i) Established political and economic relations with the U.S. in 1972.
ii) Announced the Open Door Policy in 1978.
6. In 1973, which four areas did Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai propose for modernization?
Agriculture, Industry, Military, and Science & Technology.
7. What was China’s Open Door Policy?
Achieving higher productivity through foreign capital and technology investments.
8. Arrange the following in chronological order:
i) China's entry into the World Trade Organization.
ii) Privatization of agriculture in China.
iii) Open Door Policy.
iv) End of political and economic isolation.
Answer:
(1) 1972
(2) 1978
(3) 1982
(4) 2001
9. Match the following:
↪(i) Establishment of the European Economic Cooperation Organization | (a) Marshall Plan |
↪(ii) Establishment by Bangkok Declaration | (b) ASEAN |
↪(iii) Rejection of the Euro currency | (c) Denmark and Sweden |
↪(iv) Permanent members of the UN Security Council | (d) France and Britain |
Answer: (i) a, (ii) b, (iii) c, (iv) d
Three mark Questions
1.How did the European Union transform from an economic community into a political organization?
↪i) The EU acts like a state, with its own flag, anthem, and founding day.
↪ii) Establishment of the European Parliament in 1979.
↪iii) Formation of the European Union in 1992 after the Soviet Union’s collapse.
↪iv) Common currency, unified foreign and security policies, and cooperation on justice and internal affairs.
2. Explain two pillars of the ASEAN community and their objectives.
↪i) Security Community – Focuses on resolving regional disputes without military conflict.
↪ii) Economic Community – Aims to create a shared market and production base to accelerate social and economic development.
3. What are the main objectives of regional organizations?
↪Strengthening unity among member countries.
↪Promoting regional cooperation.
↪Encouraging mutual trade among members.
↪Enhancing peace and harmony in the region.
↪Resolving disputes through dialogue.
4. Highlight four deficiencies in China’s changed economy.
↪Increased unemployment.
↪Decline in women's status.
↪Rising regional inequality.
↪Environmental damage and corruption.
5. Describe four aspects of tension in India-China relations.
↪Border disputes.
↪Water-sharing conflicts.
↪China’s support for Pakistan.
↪Expansionist policies of China.
6. How have India-China relations improved?
↪China is India’s largest trading partner.
↪Shared platforms like BRICS and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.
↪Chinese students studying computer science and English in India.
↪Joint military exercise "Hand-in-Hand."
Four-mark Questions
1. Explain the factors responsible for the rise of the Chinese economy.
↪Economic reforms led to growth.
↪Foreign investments and Special Economic Zones (SEZs).
↪Privatization of agriculture and industry.
2. How has the European Union emerged as a supranational organization?
↪Oldest organization, ensuring stability and effectiveness.
↪Common flag, anthem, founding day, and currency.
↪EU's global trade share is three times that of the U.S.
↪Second-largest defense budget after the U.S.
↪France is a permanent member of the UN Security Council.
3. How can Japan act as an alternative center of power?
↪Famous for high technology.
↪Third-largest global economy.
↪Member of the G7 group of developed countries.
↪Second-largest contributor to the UN budget.
↪Maintains a peaceful dispute-resolution approach.
↪Despite low military spending (1% of GDP), Japan ranks fourth in military expenditure.
4. Critically evaluate the rise of China’s economy.
Positive Aspects:
↪Opened doors for foreign trade and investment.
↪Modernization in agriculture, industry, military, and technology.
↪Privatization of agriculture (1982) and industry (1998).
Negative Aspects:
↪Economic benefits not equally distributed.
↪Rising unemployment.
↪Poor working conditions for women.
↪Environmental degradation.
↪Corruption.
Lesson 1.3 : Contemporary South Asia
- Characteristics of the South Asian Region
↪South Asia is a region where harmony and hostility, hope and despair, and mutual suspicion and trust coexist.
↪The term "South Asia" generally refers to India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, the Maldives, and Sri Lanka.
↪Sometimes, Afghanistan and Myanmar are also included in this region.
↪South Asia is a distinct geographical region, bordered by the vast Himalayan mountain range in the north, the Indian Ocean in the south, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Bay of Bengal in the east.
↪It is a region full of diversity, yet it holds significance as a geopolitical entity.
↪The geographical uniqueness of South Asia has contributed to its linguistic, social, and cultural distinctiveness.
"The political systems of different South Asian countries are not the same." Explain this statement.
Or
Explain the governance systems found in South Asian countries.
The political systems in different South Asian countries vary significantly, as explained below:
↪1. Democratic Success: India and Sri Lanka have successfully established democratic systems since gaining independence from Britain.
↪2. Transition in Nepal: Until 2006, Nepal had a constitutional monarchy. However, after a successful people's uprising in April 2006, democracy was established.
↪3. Fluctuating Governance in Pakistan and Bangladesh: Both Pakistan and Bangladesh have experienced shifts between democratic and military rule. Currently, both countries have democratic governments.
↪4. Bhutan's Transition to Constitutional Monarchy: Bhutan became a constitutional monarchy in 2008 and has since emerged as a multi-party democracy under the leadership of the king.
↪5. Political Evolution in the Maldives: The Maldives had a sultanate system until 1968, after which it became a republic with a presidential system. Since 2005, the country has established a multi-party democracy, although the Maldivian Democratic Party continues to dominate its politics.
"The people of South Asian countries participate in democratic aspirations." Explain this statement.
↪The record of democracy in South Asia has been mixed. However, the people of this region have consistently shown strong aspirations for democracy.
↪A recent survey in five major South Asian countries—India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka—revealed widespread public support for democracy.
↪Citizens from all social and religious backgrounds in these countries consider democracy a positive system and support representative democratic institutions.
↪People in these countries prefer democracy over any other governance system and believe it to be the best form of government for their nations.
↪These findings are significant, as it was previously believed that democracy could only thrive in wealthy nations.
↪Thus, South Asia’s experience with democracy has broadened the global perception of democratic viability.
- Pakistan
Why has democracy not taken deep roots in Pakistan, unlike India, despite both countries sharing the same history?
↪Unlike India, democracy in Pakistan has struggled to establish firm roots. Although Pakistan initially expressed commitment to a democratic system after its formation in 1947, this process was soon disrupted.
↪In 1958, Ayub Khan imposed military rule in Pakistan, marking the beginning of a series of military takeovers.
↪Successive military rulers, including Yahya Khan and Zia-ul-Haq, maintained military dictatorship in the country.
↪Democracy briefly gained ground in the 1990s when Benazir Bhutto and later Nawaz Sharif won democratic elections. However, in October 1999, General Pervez Musharraf staged a coup and took control.
↪The assassination of Benazir Bhutto in 2007 further destabilized Pakistan’s democratic prospects.
↪Although efforts to restore democracy have continued since 2008, doubts remain about its stability.
↪Political parties and leaders in Pakistan must work towards strengthening democratic institutions.
Factors Responsible for the Failure of Democracy in Pakistan
↪1. Military Intervention in Politics – The military has consistently interfered in governance, and many citizens favor military rule, believing it ensures national security.
↪2. Religious Extremism – Democracy thrives in secular states, but religious extremism in Pakistan has hindered the growth of liberal values necessary for a successful democracy.
↪3. Lack of Western Support – Western nations, particularly the U.S., have often supported military rulers in Pakistan for strategic interests, rather than promoting democracy.
↪4. Influence of Clergy and Landlords – Religious leaders and feudal elites prefer weak governance to maintain their dominance.
↪5. Poverty and Illiteracy – Widespread poverty and illiteracy prevent the general population from fully understanding the value of democracy.
↪6. Terrorism – The influence of terrorist groups has weakened democratic institutions, as these groups often enjoy more popularity than politicians.
↪Military, extremists, feudal elites, and religious leaders all prefer weak governance to maintain their power, while the general public remains unaware of these manipulations.
Suggestions to Strengthen Democracy in Pakistan
↪1. Reducing Military Influence – The role of the military in politics must be minimized, particularly its political interventions.
↪2. Controlling Religious Extremism – Efforts must be made to curb the growing influence of religious fundamentalism.
India-Pakistan Conflicts
↪India holds a central position in South Asia, making it involved in most regional conflicts.
↪The most significant conflict in South Asia is between India and Pakistan.
↪Immediately after the partition, the two nations fought over the Kashmir issue.
↪Since then, India and Pakistan have engaged in four wars, yet unresolved tensions continue.
Origin and Development of Hostilities
↪By August 15, 1947, almost all princely states had integrated into either India or Pakistan, except for three states.
↪The major issue arose with Kashmir, where the Dogra ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, initially refused to join either country.
↪While India remained neutral, Pakistan sought Kashmir by imposing an economic blockade and later sending tribal invaders to seize control.
↪In response, Maharaja Hari Singh sought India's help and signed the Instrument of Accession, formally integrating Kashmir into India.
↪The Indian army successfully repelled the invaders, but before fully reclaiming Kashmir, Prime Minister Nehru referred the matter to the United Nations, which imposed a ceasefire.
↪As a result, a portion of Kashmir remains under Pakistan's control, known as Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) by India and Azad Kashmir by Pakistan.
Pakistan's Arguments on Kashmir
↪1. Since partition was based on the Two-Nation Theory, the Muslim-majority Kashmir should belong to Pakistan.
↪2. Kashmir is geographically closer to Pakistan, and its trade was historically linked to Pakistani regions.
↪3. Kashmir’s accession to India without a referendum is illegal.
↪4. The Kashmiri people allegedly do not want to remain under Indian rule.
India’s Counterarguments on Kashmir
↪1. Legal Accession – The accession of Kashmir to India was legal under the Indian Independence Act of 1947.
↪2. Rejection of Two-Nation Theory – The Two-Nation Theory was Pakistan’s own ideology, not a binding principle.
↪3. Pakistan Violated Precondition for Referendum – The UN-mandated referendum was conditional on Pakistan withdrawing its forces from PoK, which it refused to do.
↪4. Kashmir’s Democratic Choice – The elected Constituent Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir ratified its accession to India.
Major Disputes Between India and Pakistan
↪1. Siachen Conflict – The Siachen Glacier remains a point of military conflict between the two nations.
↪2. Nuclear Arms Race – Both countries developed nuclear weapons, preventing full-scale war but escalating tensions.
↪3. Pakistan-Sponsored Terrorism – Pakistan’s support for terrorist groups has severely strained relations.
↪4. Indus Water Dispute – Despite the Indus Waters Treaty (1960), disputes over water-sharing continue.
↪5. Sir Creek Dispute – This border dispute concerns the marshy coastal area between Gujarat (India) and Sindh (Pakistan).
↪6. Pakistan-China Alliance – Pakistan ceded a portion of PoK to China, allowing China to build strategic roads and infrastructure.
↪Despite these issues, efforts for peace and diplomatic negotiations continue between the two nations.
Bangladesh and India
Historical Background
↪Before India's independence, Bangladesh was a part of India. After the partition in 1947, it became East Pakistan, a part of Pakistan. However, the people of East Pakistan were continuously neglected by the central government in West Pakistan, and they strongly opposed the imposition of Urdu as the national language. Soon after the formation of Pakistan, the people of East Pakistan began to protest against the mistreatment of their Bengali culture and language. They demanded fair representation in governance and an appropriate share of political power. The movement against the dominance of West Pakistan was led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who advocated for autonomy for East Pakistan.
↪In the 1970 elections, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s party, the Awami League, won all the seats in East Pakistan and gained a majority in the proposed national assembly of Pakistan. However, the government, controlled by leaders from West Pakistan, refused to convene the assembly. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested, and in response, the people of East Pakistan launched a movement to establish an independent nation. To suppress the movement, the Pakistani government initiated brutal military action, leading to a massive humanitarian crisis. Millions of refugees fled to India, increasing pressure on the Indian government. Eventually, India intervened, leading to the India-Pakistan War of 1971, which resulted in a decisive victory for India. With Indian support, Bangladesh emerged as an independent nation in 1971.
Political Developments in Bangladesh
Bangladesh adopted a secular, democratic, and socialist constitution. However, in 1975, an amendment was made to replace the parliamentary system with a presidential system, and all parties except the Awami League were abolished. This led to unrest, and the military staged a coup. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was assassinated, and military rule was imposed. Initially, General Ziaur Rahman took control, followed by General Ershad. However, under public pressure, military rule ended in 1991, and a multi-party parliamentary democracy was established, with Khaleda Zia becoming Bangladesh’s first female Prime Minister.
India-Bangladesh Relations
Since Bangladesh's independence was achieved with Indian support, relations between the two nations were initially friendly. Bangladesh's first president, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, visited India to express gratitude, and in 1972, India and Bangladesh signed a 25-year friendship treaty that included commitments to non-aggression and non-interference in internal affairs. India also provided ₹250 million in financial aid for Bangladesh’s reconstruction. In 1974, a border agreement was signed, resolving some territorial disputes.
However, the relationship deteriorated after Sheikh Mujibur Rahman’s assassination in 1975. The new military government under General Ziaur Rahman distanced itself from India, and Indo-Bangladesh relations weakened. Relations improved significantly only in 1996, when Sheikh Hasina, daughter of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, became Prime Minister.
Major Political Parties in Bangladesh
↪1. Awami League (AL) – Led by Sheikh Hasina, this party is secular and pro-India. Whenever the Awami League is in power, relations between India and Bangladesh improve.
↪2. Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) – Founded by General Ziaur Rahman and later led by Khaleda Zia, this party is pro-Pakistan and supports religious fundamentalism. Whenever BNP forms the government, India-Bangladesh relations tend to deteriorate.
↪Due to this fluctuation, experts describe India-Bangladesh relations as "Yuti-Viyuti" (cooperation-distrust cycle). Currently, the Awami League is in power, which has led to improved ties with India.
Key Issues in India-Bangladesh Relations
↪1. Border Disputes
India and Bangladesh share a 4,096 km long border across Mizoram, Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, and West Bengal, with several unresolved territorial disputes. Due to improper demarcation, illegal immigration has become a major security issue for India.
One significant challenge was the existence of 162 enclaves—small land parcels belonging to one country but located within the other. These enclaves resulted from historical agreements between local rulers before 1947. In 2011, India and Bangladesh conducted a joint census, and most residents opted to stay where they were. Consequently, in 2015, the Indian Parliament ratified the Land Boundary Agreement, facilitating the exchange of enclaves. This was India’s 100th constitutional amendment, ensuring a peaceful resolution to this historic issue.
↪2. River Water Disputes
Like India and Pakistan, India and Bangladesh have major river water-sharing issues since many rivers, including the Ganga and Brahmaputra, flow from India into Bangladesh. Bangladesh fears that Indian dams and irrigation projects will reduce its water supply.
Farakka Barrage Dispute: Resolved in 1996 through a water-sharing treaty signed by Indian PM H.D. Deve Gowda and Bangladeshi PM Sheikh Hasina.
Teesta River Dispute: Remains unresolved due to opposition from West Bengal’s CM, Mamata Banerjee.
Feni River and Tipaimukh Dam disputes: Still unresolved.
↪3. New Moore Island Dispute
Located in the Bay of Bengal, New Moore Island (also called South Talpatti) was disputed between India and Bangladesh. In 1981, Bangladeshi military leader Ziaur Rahman sent warships to claim it, leading to Indian naval action. However, after Ziaur Rahman’s assassination, Bangladesh accepted Indian sovereignty over the island. Later, the island submerged due to rising sea levels.
↪4. Refugee Crisis
Bangladesh’s artificial border with India has led to illegal immigration, particularly in West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. In some areas, Bangladeshi immigrants outnumber the local Indian population, affecting elections and causing communal tensions, as seen in Assam riots of 2012.
↪5. Smuggling and Human Trafficking
Bangladeshi smugglers are involved in drug and human trafficking, which negatively impacts India's youth and social stability.
↪6. Terrorism
Several insurgent groups in India’s Northeast receive support from Bangladesh-based militants and Pakistan’s ISI. The United Liberation Front of Seven Sisters (ULFOSS), which seeks to separate India’s northeastern states, operates from Bangladesh.
↪7. China Factor
China is trying to encircle India through its "String of Pearls" strategy and is strengthening ties with Bangladesh. China has increased economic aid to Bangladesh.
Started constructing a naval base at Chittagong, which threatens India’s security.
↪8. Other Disputes
Bangladesh shelters anti-India Islamic extremist groups.
It refuses to allow India transit access to its Northeast.
Bangladesh refuses to export natural gas to India or allow Myanmar to supply gas to India via Bangladesh.
Areas of Cooperation
↪The Awami League government has taken significant steps to curb anti-India activities.
↪Despite no formal extradition treaty, Bangladesh handed over top ULFA insurgents to India.
↪India and Bangladesh started the Maitree Express train (2008) between Kolkata and Dhaka.
↪In 2015, Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit led to the launch of Kolkata-Dhaka-Agartala and Dhaka-Shillong-Guwahati bus services.
↪Bangladesh awarded Indira Gandhi and Atal Bihari Vajpayee for their roles in its liberation.
Conclusion
India-Bangladesh relations fluctuate with political changes in Bangladesh. While India has always been a big brother, offering economic and strategic support, relations require mutual trust. Both nations share a common history, but to maintain strong ties, continued cooperation and understanding are necessary.
India-Sri Lanka Relations
↪Explain the issue of ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka and how it has affected India-Sri Lanka relations.
↪Sri Lanka is a small island nation located in the Indian Ocean to the south of India. It has had religious and cultural ties with India since ancient times. Emperor Ashoka sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism. During British colonial rule, both India and Sri Lanka were colonies of Britain. India gained independence on August 15, 1947, and Sri Lanka on January 4, 1948. However, along with independence, some differences arose between the two countries that remain unresolved to this day, affecting their relations.
The Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka
During the British colonial period, the British brought Indian Tamil laborers to work in the tea plantations of Sri Lanka, and many of them settled there. As a result, the Tamil population increased in the northern part of Sri Lanka, known as the Jaffna Peninsula. When the majority Sinhalese population felt that their rights and opportunities were being diminished due to the Tamils, they developed resentment towards them and pressured the Sri Lankan government to expel Tamils from the country. In 1949, the Sri Lankan government passed a Citizenship Act stating that only those born in Sri Lanka or whose parents were born there, and who had been living in the country since 1939, would be considered Sri Lankan citizens. This led to the loss of citizenship for millions of Tamils. This was the main cause of ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka and tension in its relations with India.
After several rounds of talks between the two countries, an agreement was reached in 1954 between Indian Prime Minister Nehru and Sri Lankan Prime Minister John Kotelawala, which included provisions such as:
↪1. Providing citizenship to Tamils who desired it.
↪2. Expelling those who did not wish to retain citizenship.
↪3. Giving Tamils representation in Sri Lanka's parliament.
However, the Sri Lankan government only granted citizenship to 75,000 Tamils, and the rest were forcibly sent to India, which refused to accept them, leading to strained relations between the two countries. In 1964, another agreement was made between Sri Lanka's Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike and Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, under which 300,000 Tamils were given Sri Lankan citizenship, while 550,000 had to leave within 15 years. Despite these efforts, ethnic conflicts persisted in Sri Lanka, with violent clashes between Tamils and Sinhalese in 1977, 1981, and 1993, often with government involvement. This led to the rise of Tamil organizations, including the LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam), headed by Velupillai Prabhakaran, which initiated a civil war against the Sri Lankan government.
In 1987, Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi mediated an agreement with Sri Lanka's President J.R. Jayewardene, which included provisions for a ceasefire, deployment of peacekeeping forces, and giving Tamil an official status alongside Sinhala and English. However, the peacekeeping efforts failed, and in 1991, Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by the LTTE, which further soured relations. Over time, efforts to improve relations were made, especially after 1994 when Sri Lankan President Chandrika Kumaratunga visited India and agreements were reached, including a free trade agreement in 1998. Despite the defeat of the LTTE in 2009, the Tamil issue persists, and human rights violations against Tamils by the Sri Lankan government continue.
- Nepal
↪How did the people of Nepal succeed in restoring democracy in their country? Or
↪How has the democratization process in Nepal been progressing since 1990?
↪Modern Nepal emerged in 1768 when King Prithvi Narayan Shah unified Nepal and established a monarchy. However, in 1846, the Rana family took control, reducing the king to a nominal head of state. The Rana regime was oppressive, leading to discontent among both the monarchy and the people. In 1950, a popular revolution led by the Nepali Congress Party supported King Tribhuvan, freeing Nepal from the Rana's autocracy. After the death of King Tribhuvan in 1955, his son King Mahendra took the throne and introduced a parliamentary system while maintaining the monarchy's power. In 1959, Girija Prasad Koirala became the first elected prime minister.
↪In January 1961, King Mahendra declared a Panchayat system, excluding political parties and suppressing dissent. In 1962, a new constitution was adopted with features such as a Hindu state, active monarchy, and a party-less system. After King Mahendra's death in 1972, his son King Birendra succeeded him and made constitutional amendments, but opposition continued. In June 2001, a tragic event occurred when Crown Prince Dipendra killed King Birendra, Queen Aishwarya, and other members of the royal family before committing suicide, after which King Gyanendra took the throne.
↪During this time, Maoist influence grew, and a conflict began between the monarchy, democracy supporters, and Maoists. In 2005, King Gyanendra declared a state of emergency, dissolved the parliament, and took control with military force, leading to widespread protests. Political parties intensified their resistance, resulting in the 19-day movement in April 2006, during which 21 people died and 5,000 were injured. Eventually, external pressure led to the restoration of parliament, and Girija Prasad Koirala became the interim prime minister.
↪In April 2008, Nepal held elections for a constituent assembly, in which the Maoists won a majority. The assembly elected Ram Baran Yadav as the first president of Nepal in July 2008, and Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda) was appointed prime minister. The monarchy was officially abolished, ending 240 years of rule. In December 2015, Nepal's new constitution was adopted, declaring the country a secular, democratic republic. Currently, Ram Chandra Paudel is the president and KP Sharma Oli is the prime minister.
India-Nepal Relations
↪Nepal is a strategically important neighbor to India, with historical, cultural, and economic ties dating back to ancient times. Nepal's position has become more significant for India after China's dominance in Tibet. While India-Nepal relations are typically normal, political fluctuations in Nepal can escalate old disputes between the two countries. External forces, such as China and Pakistan, can exploit these conditions to create security challenges for India.
↪Nepal was known as the only Hindu nation in the world until 2015 and is a landlocked country bordered by India to the south, east, and west, and China (Tibet) to the north. It serves as a buffer state between India and China, with shared borders with Indian states such as Sikkim, West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
↪India and Nepal share close social, cultural, and historical ties, and their political divisions are difficult to separate. Both countries have open borders, allowing unrestricted movement of people, and many cross-border ties, including marital relationships, reinforce these bonds.
↪In 1950, India and Nepal signed the "Treaty of Peace and Friendship," outlining provisions such as mutual defense, free movement of citizens, and cooperation in defense matters. However, Nepal has raised objections to this treaty, arguing that it was signed under a monarchy, and Nepal is now a socialist, secular, democratic republic. The treaty is seen by some as limiting Nepal's sovereignty.
↪Nepal has also raised concerns about India's involvement in its internal matters and the issue of water and hydropower resources. The Madhesi problem, involving people in the Terai region of Nepal with ties to India, has also contributed to tensions. In 2015, Nepal imposed an economic blockade in response to the new constitution, leading to accusations that India supported the Madhesi movement.
↪In recent years, Nepal has strengthened its ties with China, signing agreements for infrastructure development, such as the construction of a rail line from Lhasa to Kathmandu. This has raised concerns in India, as Nepal's strategic position is critical, and increasing military relations with China may pose a security challenge.
↪Despite these tensions, trade relations between India and Nepal remain strong, with India being Nepal's largest trading partner. Scientific cooperation, including joint electricity generation projects, has also been an area of collaboration. In the event of natural disasters, such as the 2015 earthquake in Nepal, India has been a key source of aid.
↪Both countries must understand that there is no alternative to their relationship, as geography and historical ties cannot be changed by external powers.
SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)
↪Its full name is South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. It was established in December 1985 through the efforts of Bangladeshi President Ziaur Rahman at the Dhaka conference. Initially, it had seven members, but after Afghanistan's membership during the 14th SAARC summit in India in 2007, the number of members increased to 8.
The members are:
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Maldives, and Afghanistan.
Objectives of SAARC
Influenced by the European Union and ASEAN, the main objectives of SAARC are:
↪1. To promote economic, social, cultural, educational, and technical cooperation among member states.
↪2. To promote trade among member nations by resolving import-export related issues and establishing a free trade area.
↪3. To collaborate for the welfare of citizens and improve their standard of living.
↪4. To encourage collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia.
↪5. To understand each other's problems and promote mutual trust.
↪6. To promote cooperation with other developing countries.
↪7. To foster international cooperation by strengthening relations with other international organizations.
Organization
Summit: Held every year
Council of Ministers: Foreign ministers' council (meets every 6 months)
Secretariat: Kathmandu
The Secretary-General is the head of the Secretariat. The term is for 2 years.
SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area)
This agreement was signed at the 12th SAARC summit in Islamabad on January 4, 2004, and it came into effect on January 1, 2006. The main goal of this agreement is to gradually reduce the customs duties on trade between member countries. Some smaller countries believe that India wants to infiltrate their markets through SAFTA and influence their society and politics through its commercial presence. However, India believes that this will not only promote economic and trade cooperation but also enhance cooperation in political matters.
Importance of SAARC
Although SAARC, established for social, economic, and cultural cooperation in South Asia, has not fully succeeded in achieving its objectives due to differences among member states and political instability, it has still contributed to cooperation in agriculture, rural development, education, and technology, along with capital investment. India has consistently provided various forms of aid to Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. Since five of the SAARC countries have coastal borders along the Indian Ocean, joint efforts are needed to make the Indian Ocean a peaceful region.
What is the Gujral Doctrine?
The Gujral Doctrine is a key principle of India's foreign policy. It was introduced by India's former Prime Minister Indira Kumar Gujral, hence it is named after him. According to this doctrine, India should take the initiative to improve relations with its neighbors rather than waiting for their initiative. In other words, India’s role should be that of a 'big brother'. Small mistakes made by neighbors should be ignored, and efforts should be made to improve relations with them. Former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, while advocating this policy, stated that "We can only change the behavior of our neighbors, not the neighbors themselves."
Lesson 1.4 : International Organizations
↪International organizations are those organizations that are formed collectively by multiple countries at the international level. These organizations have member countries and work for the welfare of the entire world.
Need for International Organizations
↪To solve problems that no single country can resolve alone.
↪To facilitate agreements between countries.
↪To enhance mutual cooperation among nations.
↪To reduce the likelihood of war in the world.
Major International Organizations
- League of Nations
- United Nations (UN)
- World Bank
- World Trade Organization (WTO)
- International Monetary Fund (IMF)
- Amnesty International
- Human Rights Watch
- UNESCO
- UNICEF
League of Nations
↪The League of Nations was established after World War I, as the world faced massive destruction and losses. To prevent another world war and to maintain peace, countries decided to form an international organization that could resolve disputes through dialogue and prevent future wars.
↪However, the League of Nations was not very successful, and the world had to face World War II, which was even more devastating than the first. After the war, it was realized that the League needed to be stronger. As a result, it was replaced by the United Nations, which is considered the successor of the League of Nations.
United Nations (UN)
↪Established – October 24, 1945
↪Members – 193 (The latest member is South Sudan)
↪Headquarters – New York
Objectives of the United Nations
↪To maintain world peace.
↪To resolve international disputes through dialogue.
↪To provide assistance to nations.
↪To promote social and economic development.
↪To facilitate international treaties and agreements.
↪To encourage global cooperation.
Main Organs of the UN
The United Nations has six main organs:
↪1. Security Council
↪2. General Assembly
↪3. Secretariat
↪4. International Court of Justice
↪5. Economic and Social Council
↪6. Trusteeship Council
Security Council
↪The Security Council is the most important organ of the UN. It has 15 members, divided into two categories:
↪Permanent Members (5)
United States, Russia, United Kingdom, France, and China.
Each permanent member has a special power called Veto Power, which allows them to block any resolution.
↪Non-Permanent Members (10)
Elected for two years.
Every year, 5 new members replace 5 retiring members, and they are elected by the General Assembly.
Functions of the Security Council
↪To maintain world peace.
↪To resolve disputes through negotiation.
↪To punish those who disturb peace.
↪To take military action against aggressors.
↪To recommend new member admissions to the General Assembly.
↪To recommend the appointment of the Secretary-General.
↪To jointly elect judges of the International Court of Justice with the General Assembly.
General Assembly
↪The General Assembly is one of the main organs of the UN, where each member country has one vote. Every country is equal in this assembly. It functions like a parliament, where global issues are discussed.
↪Decisions on general matters are made by a simple majority.
↪Decisions on important matters require a two-thirds majority.
↪Meets once a year.
Powers and Functions
↪Admission and suspension of member nations.
↪Approving the UN budget.
↪Proposing principles for international peace and security.
↪Discussing international peace and security issues.
↪Reviewing reports from other UN organs.
↪Electing the Secretary-General based on the Security Council's recommendation.
↪Jointly electing judges of the International Court of Justice.
↪Electing non-permanent members of the Security Council, members of the Economic and Social Council, and Trusteeship Council.
Secretariat
↪The UN Secretariat functions as the administrative body of the UN. The Secretary-General is its head.
↪The current Secretary-General is António Guterres.
↪The Secretariat carries out day-to-day operations, maintains records, provides information to other organs, and submits an annual report to the General Assembly.
International Court of Justice (ICJ)
↪The International Court of Justice resolves disputes between countries.
↪Located in The Hague, Netherlands.
↪Consists of 15 judges, elected for 9-year terms.
↪Every three years, five judges retire, and new ones are elected by the Security Council and General Assembly jointly.
↪Decisions are made by majority vote.
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
↪Works for economic, social, cultural, and educational development worldwide.
↪Established in 1945.
↪Current Members – 54.
↪Meetings:
July – Geneva
April – New York
Trusteeship Council
↪Formed to oversee non-autonomous territories after World War II.
↪Originally supervised 11 territories.
↪Helped them achieve independent or self-governance.
↪The last trust territory, Palau, was under U.S. administration.
↪After Palau became independent, the Trusteeship Council was suspended on November 1, 1994, but was not dissolved.
Reforms in the United Nations
↪Changes After the Cold War
↪Dissolution of the Soviet Union.
↪Unipolar world order.
↪U.S. dominance.
↪Rapid economic rise of China.
↪Asia’s growing economic power.
New Challenges
↪Terrorism
↪Climate change
↪Global warming
↪Civil wars
↪Nuclear proliferation
↪Environmental destruction
↪Emergence of new superpowers
Proposed Reforms
↪Expanding the jurisdiction of the UN.
↪Restructuring the Security Council.
↪Increasing the number of veto-wielding members.
↪Including new countries in the Security Council.
↪Reforming UN working methods.
In 1992, the General Assembly proposed a reform resolution. The main complaints were:
↪1. The Security Council does not represent the current political situation.
↪2. The interests of Western countries dominate its decisions.
↪3. The Council lacks equal representation.
India’s Candidacy for Permanent Membership in the Security Council
India meets all proposed criteria for permanent membership:
↪Large economy
↪Huge population
↪Extensive territory
↪Strong military
↪High contribution to the UN budget
↪Respect for democracy and human rights
↪Cultural diversity
However, some countries oppose India’s membership due to concerns over:
↪India’s nuclear weapons.
↪Relations with Pakistan.
↪A need to include Brazil, Germany, Japan, and South Africa as well.
↪Lack of representation for Africa and South America in the Security Council.
Challenges in Implementing UN Reforms
↪Disagreements on economic and military criteria for new permanent members.
↪Debate on how much a nation should contribute to the UN budget for membership.
↪Difficulty in maintaining equal geographical representation.
The UN remains influenced by the United States, making reforms difficult.
A Unipolar World and the UNO
Almost all countries believe that the United Nations is not effective in a unipolar world. This is stated because:
↪The UNO is significantly influenced by the United States.
↪The United States contributes the largest share to the UNO's budget.
↪The UNO headquarters is located in New York, USA, and therefore, most of its bureaucrats are American.
↪The United States is a permanent member of the UN Security Council and holds veto power.
↪Due to its military and economic strength, the United States has often disregarded the UNO.
Why Do Some Countries Challenge India's Entry as a Permanent Member of the UN Security Council?
India's bid for permanent membership in the UN Security Council faces opposition for the following reasons:
↪Some countries are concerned about India's nuclear weapons.
↪Some believe that India's strained relations with Pakistan would make it ineffective as a permanent member.
↪Certain nations argue that if India is granted permanent membership, emerging powers like Brazil, Germany, Japan, and South Africa would also need to be included, which they oppose.
↪Some countries insist that if the Security Council is to be expanded, Africa and South America must be given representation, as these continents are currently unrepresented in the Council.
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